Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB)#

Purpose / Role#

autonomous_emergency_braking is a module that prevents collisions with obstacles on the predicted path created by a control module or sensor values estimated from the control module.

Assumptions#

This module has following assumptions.

It is used when driving at low speeds (about 15 km/h).

The predicted path of the ego vehicle can be made from either the path created from sensors or the path created from a control module, or both.

The current speed and angular velocity can be obtained from the sensors of the ego vehicle, and it uses points as obstacles.

The AEBs target obstacles are 2D points that can be obtained from the input point cloud or by obtaining the intersection points between the predicted ego footprint path and a predicted object's shape.

IMU path generation: steering angle vs IMU's angular velocity#

Currently, the IMU-based path is generated using the angular velocity obtained by the IMU itself. It has been suggested that the steering angle could be used instead onf the angular velocity.

The pros and cons of both approaches are:

IMU angular velocity:

(+) Usually, it has high accuracy
(-)Vehicle vibration might introduce noise.

Steering angle:

(+) Not so noisy
(-) May have a steering offset or a wrong gear ratio, and the steering angle of Autoware and the real steering may not be the same.

For the moment, there are no plans to implement the steering angle on the path creation process of the AEB module.

Inner-workings / Algorithms#

AEB has the following steps before it outputs the emergency stop signal.

Activate AEB if necessary.
Generate a predicted path of the ego vehicle.
Get target obstacles from the input point cloud and/or predicted object data.
Estimate the closest obstacle speed.
Collision check with target obstacles.
Send emergency stop signals to /diagnostics.

We give more details of each section below.

1. Activate AEB if necessary#

We do not activate AEB module if it satisfies the following conditions.

Ego vehicle is not in autonomous driving state

When the ego vehicle is not moving (Current Velocity is very low)

2. Generate a predicted path of the ego vehicle#

AEB generates a predicted footprint path based on current velocity and current angular velocity obtained from attached sensors. Note that if use_imu_path is false, it skips this step. This predicted path is generated as:

\[ x_{k+1} = x_k + v cos(\theta_k) dt \\ y_{k+1} = y_k + v sin(\theta_k) dt \\ \theta_{k+1} = \theta_k + \omega dt \]

where $v$ and $\omega$ are current longitudinal velocity and angular velocity respectively. $dt$ is time interval that users can define in advance.

On the other hand, if use_predicted_trajectory is set to true, the AEB module will use the predicted path from the MPC as a base to generate a footprint path. Both the IMU footprint path and the MPC footprint path can be used at the same time.

3. Get target obstacles#

After generating the ego footprint path(s), the target obstacles are identified. There are two methods to find target obstacles: using the input point cloud, or using the predicted object information coming from perception modules.

Pointcloud obstacle filtering#

The AEB module can filter the input pointcloud to find target obstacles with which the ego vehicle might collide. This method can be enable if the use_pointcloud_data parameter is set to true. The pointcloud obstacle filtering has three major steps, which are rough filtering, noise filtering with clustering and rigorous filtering.

Rough filtering#

In rough filtering step, we select target obstacle with simple filter. Create a search area up to a certain distance (default is half of the ego vehicle width plus the path_footprint_extra_margin parameter) away from the predicted path of the ego vehicle and ignore the point cloud that are not within it. The rough filtering step is illustrated below.

rough_filtering

Noise filtering with clustering and convex hulls#

To prevent the AEB from considering noisy points, euclidean clustering is performed on the filtered point cloud. The points in the point cloud that are not close enough to other points to form a cluster are discarded. Furthermore, each point in a cluster is compared against the cluster_minimum_height parameter, if no point inside a cluster has a height/z value greater than cluster_minimum_height, the whole cluster of points is discarded. The parameters cluster_tolerance, minimum_cluster_size and maximum_cluster_size can be used to tune the clustering and the size of objects to be ignored, for more information about the clustering method used by the AEB module, please check the official documentation on euclidean clustering of the PCL library: https://pcl.readthedocs.io/projects/tutorials/en/master/cluster_extraction.html.

Furthermore, a 2D convex hull is created around each detected cluster, the vertices of each hull represent the most extreme/outside points of the cluster. These vertices are then checked in the next step.

Rigorous filtering#

After Noise filtering, the module performs a geometric collision check to determine whether the filtered obstacles/hull vertices actually have possibility to collide with the ego vehicle. In this check, the ego vehicle is represented as a rectangle, and the point cloud obstacles are represented as points. Only the vertices with a possibility of collision are kept.

rigorous_filtering

Using predicted objects to get target obstacles#

If the use_predicted_object_data parameter is set to true, the AEB can use predicted object data coming from the perception modules, to get target obstacle points. This is done by obtaining the 2D intersection points between the ego's predicted footprint path and each of the predicted objects enveloping polygon or bounding box.

predicted_object_and_path_intersection

Finding the closest target obstacle#

Once all target obstacles have been identified, the AEB module chooses the point that is closest to the ego vehicle as the candidate for collision checking. Only the closest point is considered because RSS distance is used to judge if a collision will happen or not, and if the closest vertex to the ego is deemed to be safe from collision, the rest of the target obstacles will also be safe.

closest_object

4. Obstacle velocity estimation#

Once the position of the closest obstacle/point is determined, the AEB modules uses the history of previously detected objects to estimate the closest object relative speed using the following equations:

\[ d_{t} = t_{1} - t_{0} \]

\[ d_{x} = norm(o_{x} - prev_{x}) \]

\[ v_{norm} = d_{x} / d_{t} \]

Where $t_{1}$ and $t_{0}$ are the timestamps of the point clouds used to detect the current closest object and the closest object of the previous point cloud frame, and $o_{x}$ and $prev_{x}$ are the positions of those objects, respectively.

relative_speed

Note that, when the closest obstacle/point comes from using predicted object data, $v_{norm}$ is calculated by directly computing the norm of the predicted object's velocity in the x and y axes.

The velocity vector is then compared against the ego's predicted path to get the longitudinal velocity $v_{obj}$:

\[ v_{obj} = v_{norm} * Cos(yaw_{diff}) + v_{ego} \]

where is the difference in yaw between the ego path and the displacement vector $v_{pos} = o_{pos} - prev_{pos}$ and $v_{ego}$ is the ego's current speed, which accounts for the movement of points caused by the ego moving and not the object. All these equations are performed disregarding the z axis (in 2D).

Note that, the object velocity is calculated against the ego's current movement direction. If the object moves in the opposite direction to the ego's movement, the object velocity will be negative, which will reduce the rss distance on the next step.

The resulting estimated object speed is added to a queue of speeds with timestamps. The AEB then checks for expiration of past speed estimations and eliminates expired speed measurements from the queue, the object expiration is determined by checking if the time elapsed since the speed was first added to the queue is larger than the parameter previous_obstacle_keep_time. Finally, the median speed of the queue is calculated. The median speed will be used to calculate the RSS distance used for collision checking.

5. Collision check with target obstacles using RSS distance#

In the fourth step, it checks the collision with the closest obstacle point using RSS distance. RSS distance is formulated as:

\[ d = v_{ego}*t_{response} + v_{ego}^2/(2*a_{min}) -(sign(v_{obj})) * v_{obj}^2/(2*a_{obj_{min}}) + offset \]

where $v_{ego}$ and $v_{obj}$ is current ego and obstacle velocity, $a_{min}$ and $a_{obj_{min}}$ is ego and object minimum acceleration (maximum deceleration), $t_{response}$ is response time of the ego vehicle to start deceleration. Therefore the distance from the ego vehicle to the obstacle is smaller than this RSS distance $d$, the ego vehicle send emergency stop signals. This is illustrated in the following picture.

rss_check

6. Send emergency stop signals to `/diagnostics`#

If AEB detects collision with point cloud obstacles in the previous step, it sends emergency signal to /diagnostics in this step. Note that in order to enable emergency stop, it has to send ERROR level emergency. Moreover, AEB user should modify the setting file to keep the emergency level, otherwise Autoware does not hold the emergency state.

Use cases#

Front vehicle suddenly brakes#

The AEB can activate when a vehicle in front suddenly brakes, and a collision is detected by the AEB module. Provided the distance between the ego vehicle and the front vehicle is large enough and the ego’s emergency acceleration value is high enough, it is possible to avoid or soften collisions with vehicles in front that suddenly brake. NOTE: the acceleration used by the AEB to calculate rss_distance is NOT necessarily the acceleration used by the ego while doing an emergency brake. The acceleration used by the real vehicle can be tuned by changing the mrm_emergency stop jerk and acceleration values.

front vehicle collision prevention

Stop for objects that appear suddenly#

When an object appears suddenly, the AEB can act as a fail-safe to stop the ego vehicle when other modules fail to detect the object on time. If sudden object cut ins are expected, it might be useful for the AEB module to detect collisions of objects BEFORE they enter the real ego vehicle path by increasing the expand_width parameter.

occluded object collision prevention

Preventing Collisions with rear objects#

The AEB module can also prevent collisions when the ego vehicle is moving backwards.

backward driving

Preventing collisions in case of wrong Odometry (IMU path only)#

When vehicle odometry information is faulty, it is possible that the MPC fails to predict a correct path for the ego vehicle. If the MPC predicted path is wrong, collision avoidance will not work as intended on the planning modules. However, the AEB’s IMU path does not depend on the MPC and could be able to predict a collision when the other modules cannot. As an example you can see a figure of a hypothetical case in which the MPC path is wrong and only the AEB’s IMU path detects a collision.